Long before the first wave of feminism in the mid-nineteenth century had its initial launch, a well-established religious movement sparked a socio-political awakening in India. The processes of social and cultural integration in the bhakti tradition have significantly reshaped medieval Indian society. To understand the reclamation inherent in the bhakti movement, one must first acknowledge the ‘dominant power structure’ that prevailed.

The orthodox Brahmanical hierarchy (the priestly class) enforced a strict monopoly over religious ceremonies, temple access, and sacred texts. On the other hand, spiritual knowledge was bound within Sanskrit, a language only upper-class men could learn. The bhakti movement arose from a desire for a direct relationship with God while rejecting society’s rules and rituals. Women and marginalised castes were heavily oppressed and restricted from public spheres. Since religious space was the only space available to women in the early medieval period, many women embraced bhakti (devotion), and it eventually provided them space to define their own voices that revised society, relationships and religions.

The bhakti movement, since its emergence in the 7^th century in South India, had a seismic impact on women and marginalised groups. Ideas of inclusivity, accessibility, and connectivity were running through reforms and resistance. A small but steadily growing group of thinkers called for the democratisation of the Divine against the social hierarchy in religious practises. Many women supported this reform with resilience, as they knew that change, whether conservative or revolutionary, would inevitably shape gender relations and advance women’s rights.

Three such women saints defied social norms through their radical personal lives and lived experiences: Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Andal, and Akka Mahadevi. Their devotional songs feature dissent and defiance, resisting mortal relations for divine love. Ultimately, they seek moral, intellectual and social liberation.

This rebelling against the socio-cultural norms that expected them to be acquiescent and submissive wives portrays them as early feminists. This was especially important at a time when the definition of “virtuous wife” had become increasingly restrictive. These women resisted the traditional ideas of wife not only by rejecting marriage but also by choosing the Lord as their husband.

1.      Karaikkal Ammaiyar (6^th Century)

Historically recognised as the first woman saint of the bhakti movement, Karaikkal Ammaiyar (meaning “the revered mother from Karaikkal”) belonged to the Nayanar (Shaivite) group of the Tamil bhakti. A devoted follower of Lord Shiva, she was born as Punithavanthi, was married to Paramadattan, a merchant from Nagapattinam. Though a devoted wife, her husband abandoned her after a miraculous incident that has also been noted in the 12th-century Tamil text, Periyapuranam, written by Sekkizhar.

According to the text, one day her husband, Paramadattan, sent two mangoes to their home while he was away at work. Her wife offered a mango to a hungry devotee who came to the house seeking alms, as the meal had not been prepared. Later that day, her husband returned and joyfully ate the second mango. He praised its exceptional taste and asked for the other mango. Panicked, Punithavanthi prayed to Lord Shiva, and miraculously a mango appeared in front of her eyes. She presented it to her husband, who was astonished by its divine taste and pressed her to reveal the truth of a celestial mango. However, after the truth was revealed, the husband did not believe it and demanded that she produce another mango. She prayed, and another miraculous mango appeared, only to disappear as soon as he touched it. Thus, realising his wife’s divine nature, Paramadattan bowed to her, stating that she was divine, not an ordinary woman.

Punithavanthi then prayed to Lord Shiva, asking if her husband no longer viewed her as his wife, then she wished to be rid of her physical beauty. Her prayers were answered instantly; her flesh melted away, leaving her in a skeleton. She was granted eternal devotion and sang through her life in praise of Lord Shiva. Her devotional hymns were known as Arputha Thiruvanthathi, Thiruvalangattu Thiruppathigam, Thiruirattai Manimalai.

The devotional hymns of Karaikkal Ammiyar are: 

Mani Malai
Thiruvalankattu Mootha Thirupathigam (First) – Begins with “Kongai thirangi”
Thiruvalankattu Mootha Thirupathigam (Second) – Begins with “Etti ilavam”
Arputha TiruvanthathiIrattai 

2.      Andal (9^th Century)

Also known as Godadevi, Andal was the only female among the 12 Alvars (Vaishnavite) group. Found as an infant under a Tulsi plant in Srivalliputhar, she grew up with an intense, unyielding devotion to Lord Vishnu and served him at the Srirangam temple. Her apocryphal tale reveals that a devout priest named Periyalvar found an infant girl in the temple garden. He named her Goda (meaning “the gift of the earth”). He raised her in an environment deeply immersed in the loving worship of Lord Vishnu.

Simultaneously, Goda’s devotion grew into profound and romantic love for the Lord. She would wear the garland intended for the God to see how it would look on her, and then offer it to Lord Vishnu. When her father discovered this, he was upset, discarded the garland with the used flowers, and made a fresh one. Later, that night Lord Vishnu appeared in his dream and said He would prefer the garland worn by Goda first. Since then, she has been called Andal, meaning she won the Lord’s heart.

When she was of marriageable age, Andal refused earthly suitors and declared that she would only marry Lord Ranganatha (a form of Lord Vishnu) at the Srirangam temple. Andal is celebrated as a divine incarnation and is also known for her two legendary compositions: Tiruppavai, a collection of 30 verses, and Nachiyar Tirumoli, a 143-verse poem expressing her intense yearning for Lord Vishnu.

The devotional hymns of Andal are:

• Thiruppavai-30 verses
• Nacciyar Tirumoli- 143 verses

3.      Akka Mahadevi (12^th Century)

Much like Andal, Akka Mahadevi also renounced earthly attachments and her marriage to King Koushika to seek complete union with the Divine. Though a devotee of Lord Shiva since childhood, she began her spiritual journey when she left her royal life and followed the path of mysticism.

Mahadevi, married to a King named Koushika, preceded her true spiritual husband as Lord Shiva. When the King forced himself upon her and tried to assert his authority, she stripped herself of worldly attachments and clothing, allowing her long tresses to cover her, and walked out of the palace. She went through several hardships and was harassed by a society that found it unpalatable to see a woman as a naked ascetic.

She eventually made her journey to spiritual learning and engaged in philosophical debates and discussions with revered mystics at the Anubhava Mantapa in Basavakalyana, and getting the title Akka. During her life, Mahadevi composed hundreds of vachanas (free-verse poems) detailing her intense longing for Lord Shiva.

The devotional hymns of Akka Mahadevi are: 

A compilation of her Vachanas are avalible in a digitised copy of a literary text (Kannada) and in tranlation (english). Here and here.

Bio note: Sonal Jakhar is a PhD candidate at the Department of Indian Languages and Literary Studies, University of Delhi. Her research interests focus on medieval Indian literature, women’s writings, and indigenous traditions. She is currently working on the unsung bhakti women saints of medieval Bharat.